Type 2 diabetes
Type 2 (T2D), formerly known as adult-onset diabetes, is a form of diabetes that is characterized by high blood sugar, resistance, and relative lack of insulin. Common symptoms include increased thirst, frequent urination, and unexplained weight loss. Other symptoms include increased hunger, having a sensation of pins and needles, and sores (wounds) that heal slowly. Symptoms often develop slowly. Long-term from high blood sugar include heart disease; ; diabetic retinopathy, which can result in blindness; kidney failure; and poor blood flow in the lower limbs, which may lead to amputations. A sudden onset of hyperosmolar hyperglycemic state may occur; however, ketoacidosis is uncommon.
Underlined words are explained — tap any of them.
Symptoms — what it feels like
- ·Increased thirst, frequent urination, unexplained weight loss, increased hunger
Causes — why it happens
- ·, lack of exercise,
How it's found
- ·Blood test
Prevention
- ·Maintaining normal weight, exercising, healthy diet
Treatment
- ·Dietary changes, exercise, medication such as metformin and , bariatric
Complications
- ·Hyperosmolar hyperglycemic state, diabetic ketoacidosis, heart disease, , diabetic retinopathy, kidney failure, lower-limb amputations
Outlook
- ·10 year shorter life expectancy
A European-trained for type 2 flags 30.6% of Telugu (India) people as high-risk - vs the 10% it was designed for. That's a 3.1x mis-stratification: the score's 'average' is set to European , so it systematically mis-reads South Asians (a +0.80 SD mean shift).
A study that would help: Recalibrate PGS000033 on an Indian (define the threshold on South-Asian, not European, risk) and quantify how many people get correctly re-classified. A concrete, fundable validation study once a genotyped+phenotyped Indian sample is in hand.
The risk score that cries wolf for Indians — over the largest diabetes population on Earth
A European-trained (PGS000033) flags 30.6% of Telugu Indians as high-risk, against the 10% it was calibrated to — a 3.1x mis-stratification (our analysis on South Asian samples). The score's baseline is European; applied to Indian DNA it reads risk off a mis-set ruler.
India has over 100 million adults with (ICMR-INDIAB national study, 2023), and South Asians develop it younger, at lower BMI, with more central fat — the 'thin-fat' . A tool that systematically mis-ranks them isn't academic: it mis-triages the largest diabetes population on Earth.
The -frequency mean-shift that drives the mis- is real and measurable. What's missing is a South-Asian-calibrated score validated against Indian outcomes — the training cohorts barely include Indians. Effect sizes and linkage patterns may differ too, which frequency math alone can't capture.
Recalibrate PGS000033 on an Indian genotyped + phenotyped (even a few thousand people), set the high-risk threshold on South-Asian rather than European risk, and measure how many people get correctly reclassified. A clean, publishable validation once a sample is in hand.
- Martin et al., 'Clinical use of current polygenic risk scores may exacerbate health disparities', Nature Genetics 2019
- Anjana et al. (ICMR-INDIAB), Lancet Diabetes & Endocrinology 2023 — ~101M Indians with diabetes
- D2I2 PRS-transferability analysis (1000 Genomes phase 3)